INSTRUCTION

Interactive courseware Interactive CourseWare - (ICW) A training program controlled by a computer that relies on trainee input to determine the order and pace of instruction delivery. The trainee advances through the sequence of instructional events by making decisions and selections.
..... Click the link for more information. not only provides learners with adequate support and stimulated features which inspire learners with active, constructive, attitudes toward message/activities embedded Inserted into. See embedded system. in courseware, but also encourage learners in the engagement of meaningful incorporation of information into their existing cognitive structure. Hence, interactive World Wide Web (WWW WWW or W3: see World Wide Web.

(World Wide Web) The common host name for a Web server. The "www-dot" prefix on Web addresses is widely used to provide a recognizable way of identifying a Web site. ) courseware is an alternative approach to provide ideal learning opportunities that empower the symbol systems and mental processing capabilities of learners. However, it is only when explicit use is made of new natures of the interactive WWW that the "new" instructional media would add multiple value to human learning. The learning context of the interactive WWW can evoke the learner's creation of analogies from previous experiences. The courseware interfaces to interactive courseware is the only channel where a learner has access to the learning opportunities provided by the courseware in terms of information content, medium elements, inte ractive learning activities, and functionality. Therefore, the quality of interface to courseware is a matter of vital importance to its learning effectiveness. This article describes the construction of medium elements and messages with various motivation factors in a guided-discovery edutainment Educational material that is also entertaining.
(application) edutainment - Interactive education and entertainment services or software, usually supplied commercially via a cable network or on CD-ROM. , The Heart of Earth courseware for elementary science designed and developed by the author in Taiwan. The courseware uses interactive dynamics involving animation and role-play-game approach. The combined features of learning-by-doing and learning-by-viewing approaches form a discovery environment where a learner can construct personal meaning by attempting to interpret and explain time and space concepts of earth science from personal exploration, experiences, and understanding.

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There's nothing so practical as good theory. There's nothing so theoretically interesting as good practice. Gaffney & Anderson (1991)

Learning is the outcome of ongoing changes in our mental frameworks while we "actively" make meaning out of our experiences (Osborne & Freyberg, 1985). It appears that the passive expository teaching method or reception oriented learning approach could not completely meet the needs of science instruction. Current theories on learning focus on the "active agent" role of learners who do not passively receive message delivered through instructional channels but who do actively explore phenomena and construct knowledge by themselves. The notion of exploratory or discovery learning is well known over the years but has recently received renewed attention through the usage of interactive courseware. Interactive courseware not only provides learners with adequate support and stimulated features, which inspire learners with active, constructive attitude toward message/activities embedded in courseware, but also encourages learners through the engagement of meaningful incorporation of information into their existing c ognitive structure. Hence, interactive WWW courseware is an alternative approach to provide ideal learning opportunities that empower the symbol systems and mental processing capabilities of learners.

The learning context of the interactive WWW can evoke learner's creation of analogies from previous experiences. Learners are likely to construct meaning out of their interactive experiences, to interpret the verbal as well as visual information, construct their mental frameworks, and understand the natural facts as they work directly with virtual phenomena in the learning context. The interfaces or Human-Computer Interfaces (software, hardware) Human-Computer Interface - (HCI) Any software or hardware that allows a user to interact with a computer. Examples are WIMP, command-line interpreter, or virtual reality.

See also Human-Computer Interaction. (HCI (Human Computer Interaction) Refers to the design and implementation of computer systems that people interact with. It includes desktop systems as well as embedded systems in all kinds of devices. ) to an interactive courseware is the only channel, a window, an agent (Baber, 1988; O'Malley, 1989; Neale, 1995) through which a leamer has access to the learning opportunities provided by the courseware in terms of information content, medium elements, interactive learning activities, and functionality. An interface might facilitate, hinder, or totally block the desired interaction between a learner and the learning context. Therefore, the quality of interface to courseware is a matter of vital importance to its learning effectiveness. This article describes the construction of int erfaces in an interactive WWW, The Heart of Earth courseware for elementary science designed and developed by the author in Taiwan. The goal of this article is to provide a link between the theoretical principles of guided-discovery and situated learning, the practice of message and interface design, and the practice of edutainment interactive WWW design and development.

THE INTERFACES OF THE HEART OF EARTH

Implicit knowledge, which remains unanalyzed by people, takes place in a natural, automatic, unconscious way in the experiential cognition cognition

Act or process of knowing. Cognition includes every mental process that may be described as an experience of knowing (including perceiving, recognizing, conceiving, and reasoning), as distinguished from an experience of feeling or of willing. of human beings (Rieber, 1996). The reflective cognition construct is explicit understanding by deliberate thought and reasoning over time (Norman, 1993). Interactive WWW courseware must provide nonblock opportunities for both experiential cognition (audio-visual experience) and reflective cognition (thought and transformation) without overwhelming or distracting the user with multiple representations (Rieber, 1996). The representations in courseware must: (a) appropriately show important, critical features of a domain knowledge while ignoring the irrelevant; (b) be appropriate for the target learners; (c) be appropriate for the learning tasks/outcomes; (d) appropriately support levels of understanding; and (e) be appropriate for the instructional support (for instance, guided discovery) (adapted from Norman, 1993; Rieber, 1996). Therefore, the interface of courseware sho sho (shō),
n See akashi. uld "disappear" for the learner so that she/he can concentrate on the domain message itself (O'Malley, 1988). Courseware usually presents new, abstract domains, which are not directly represented in the learner's experience. Only through creative design of smooth transition between a series of metaphors can courseware (context) introduce appropriate domain representation. Adopting the idea of Glass-Box (Brown, 1989), the interfaces of The Heart of Earth were made (a) domain transparent that allow learners to "see through" it; (b) internal transparent to "see into" it; and (c) embedding 1. (mathematics) embedding - One instance of some mathematical object contained with in another instance, e.g. a group which is a subgroup.
2. (theory) embedding - (domain theory) A complete partial order F in [X -> Y] is an embedding if
..... Click the link for more information. transparent that learners see relationships of components/objects to the larger context.

Bruner (1973) believed that quality learning should address four major concerns: (a) promote conditions that predispose pre·dis·pose
v.
To make susceptible, as to a disease. individuals to learning; (b) present knowledge so that it is structured or organized appropriately for intended learners, (c) to sequence learning activities to promote effective learning; and (d) use reinforcement and feedback effectively. Based upon these concerns, a virtual maze trail forms the learning context.

Representation medium in interfaces of the The Heart of Earth are designed for the following purposes (Keegan, 1993 & 1995; Njoo & de Jong De Jong is the most common Dutch surname. Many people bear this name, including many important historical figures. Some of these people are mentioned below.

De Jong may mean:

* Petrus de Jong, prime minister of the Netherlands from 1967 until 1971
*

, 1991; Park, 1994; Rieber & Kini, 1991; Savery & Duffy, 1995; Towne, Jong Noun 1. Jong - United States writer (born in 1942)
Erica Jong , & Spada, 1993):

1. An attention guide

* Paivio's Dual Coding Theory Coding theory is a branch of mathematics and computer science dealing with the error-prone process of transmitting data across noisy channels, via clever means, so that a large number of errors that occur can be corrected. proclaimed that verbal and nonverbal non·ver·bal
adj.
1. Being other than verbal; not involving words: nonverbal communication.

2. Involving little use of language: a nonverbal intelligence test. processing subsystems in human cognition Human cognition is the study of how the human brain thinks. As a subject of study, human cognition tends to be more than only theoretical in that its theories lead to working models that demonstrate behavior similar to human thought. process activate linguistic and visual information respectively. First, the incoming stimuli are connected with the verbal and visual systems through representational processing Noun 1. representational process - any basic cognitive process in which some entity comes to stand for or represent something else
basic cognitive process - cognitive processes involved in obtaining and storing knowledge . The associative processing then activates informational units within either of the verbal or visual systems. Finally, the referential process builds connections between the verbal and visual systems. The salient features of representation medium (text, graphics, animation, narration, and music) used in the The Heart of Earth can direct the learner's attention. Due to the accessible file format of the Internet, Photoshop[C] was used to convert file format into JPEG JPEG
in full Joint Photographic Experts Group

Standard computer file format for storing graphic images in a compressed form for general use. JPEG images are compressed using a mathematical algorithm. and GIF GIF
in full Graphics Interchange Format

Standard computer file format for graphic images. GIF files use data compression to reduce the file size. The original version of the format was developed by CompuServe in 1987. and to embellish the images. Gifcon[C] produces the animated gif A moving picture in GIF format, which is made up of a series of frames. When displayed, they provide an animated sequence that cycles over and over without stopping. Although popular on the Web, animated GIFs are larger than single-frame GIFs and take longer to download. files and make a uniform palette of these gif files See GIF. . The graphic tool 3DSMAX 2[C] can construct the three dimension space as well as models. 3DSMAX 2 has the strong ability to simulate the textur e of planets, meteorite meteorite, meteor that survives the intense heat of atmospheric friction and reaches the earth's surface. Because of the destructive effects of this friction, only the very largest meteors become meteorites. , atmosphere, the surface of metal, and of course, the animation. MedisStudio S[C] and Macromedia Flash[C] work together to edit the sound effect and background music. RealPublisher[C] as well as Flash[C] were selected to convert audio files into .SWF files See Flash. , which are accessible by WWW browsers (hypertext, World-Wide Web) WWW browser - A browser for use on the World-Wide Web. if the flash player is installed. After .SWF files were done, Afterflash[C] helped create homepages, which contained the .SWF files, and produces JAVA language automatically. The feedback forms were easily produced by WebPage Maker[C] and Frontpage Server Extension[C]. Therefore, more effort can be put on the courseware content, not the CGI scripts written. Authorware for Windows[C] and Shockware for Authoware[C} were the authoring tools used in this project.

2. A context builder

* The Heart of Earth opens with a scenario story with visual, verbal, and aural aural /au·ral/ (aw´r'l)
1. auditory (1).

2. pertaining to an aura.

au·ral 1
adj.
Relating to or perceived by the ear. messages that immediately plunge a learner into a virtual situation (Figure 1). The prologue pro·logue also pro·log
n.
1. An introduction or preface, especially a poem recited to introduce a play.

2. An introduction or introductory chapter, as to a novel.

3. An introductory act, event, or period. scenario explains the reason why the learner has to find the ultimate energy source--The Heart of Earth; it is because a meteorite threatened the earth. Residents of the planet must use quantum power of The Heart of Earth into a super laser gun to destroy the approaching meteorite. The learner then tries to pass through each puzzle in the maze trail and to win a master key to the room of The Heart of Earth. Learners then begin their exploration in the maze context with the specified mission. The master key will be granted to the learner once he! she has answered each challenge question correctly at his/her first try in every embedded activity such as moving objects or manipulating a simulation model.

* A Personal Digital Assistant (FDA FDA
abbr.
Food and Drug Administration

FDA,
n.pr See Food and Drug Administration.
FDA,
n.pr the abbreviation for the Food and Drug Administration. ) assists learners in gathering data, and displays the position where he/she is. Three major features were provided by the PDA (Personal Digital Assistant) A handheld computer for managing contacts, appointments and tasks. It typically includes a name and address database, calendar, to-do list and note taker, which are the functions in a personal information manager (see PIM). :

(a). E-mail messages: E-mail messages are sent by the World Aeronautics and Space Administration Bureau (WASA WASA Water And Sewer Authority
WASA Water and Sewer Authority (Washington DC)
WASA Washington Association of School Administrators
WASA Welsh Amateur Swimming Association
WASA Wisconsin Agri-Service Association ) officer. Each message assists learners to complete a specific mission. Hence, the FDA provides the necessary guidance for learners while they explore concepts and rules through the embedded learning activities in the guided discovery learning context.

(b). Calendar: The Calendar of Earth represents the slope of the earth's axis, and how it affects the seasons on the earth in 12 months (Figure 2). Therefore, learners can observe the changes of the earth's axis, and find the best answers to solve problems in the maze trail.

(c). Maze map: A map indicates the position of learners in a tortuous tor·tu·ous
adj.
Having many turns; winding or twisting.

tortuous adjective Referring to complexly twisted thing. Cf Tortious. path and reminds a learner how many nodes they interacted with and without.

* To avoid the tension between literalism lit·er·al·ism
n.
1. Adherence to the explicit sense of a given text or doctrine.

2. Literal portrayal; realism.


lit and magic in metaphor interfaces, the presenter applied a game-rule treatment to design the guided discovery environment which combined graphics, text, animation, and audio elements in a virtual The Heart of Earth with a series of nodes to represent different aspects of the domain as interface metaphors. In this guided discovery-learning context, learners are presented with leading questions, baffling baf·fle
tr.v. baf·fled, baf·fling, baf·fles
1. To frustrate or check (a person) as by confusing or perplexing; stymie.

2. To impede the force or movement of.

n.
1. situations, or interesting problems. In the The Heart of Earth courseware, literal features are faithful to a maze trail metaphor; magical features of multiple representations enhance content and functionality of courseware without sacrificing deliberate violations of the metaphor. The multiple representations by using different metaphors for various domain aspects, is vital for learning. Learners of the theme maze trail metaphor (represent virtual setting--the place, the facilities, the tools, and various aids to carry on the learning activities in the courseware) will draw analogies with their various experiences in daily lives. The open scenario can facilitate learners to form a mental model about the imaginary context, which is difficult with verbal explanation and/or static visual displays.

3. An interaction motivator

* What a learner understands, which occurs in his/her interactions with the context, is a function of the context, the content, the learner's activity, and the goal/purpose of the learner (Savery & Duffy 1995). The open scenario grants an honor assignment to the learner and allures the learner to adopt the goal of assignment as his/her own. The goal forms the stimulus for learners to undertake the next exploratory activities (Njoo & de Jong, 1991). Learners need to be engaged in the learning activities for a sufficient period of time to allow the transformation from implicit to explicit outcomes possible. Therefore, The initial conditions (such as number, speed, direction, objects, ... etc.) in each interactive learning activity is randomly determined and given in every trail. In addition, the game-rule treatment allows learners the opportunity to explore and construct scientific information and concepts in rewarding, challenging, and creative ways. In short, the learner has increased motivation for longer in teraction.

4. A record keeper

* Sixteen index lights were used to count learners' scores, reflecting the outcome in each learning activity. The program detects the scores the students earned in each learning activity. Once the learner solves a challenge problem, the corresponding index light will be lit immediately and one sketch of the master key shows up. If the learner fails at his/her second try, the light will be turned off. As long as all 16 lights are on, the master key will be granted to the learner. The learners' scores of each module will be recorded in a personal folder. The record could be resumed as the learner uses the courseware again. By means of the challenging mission granted to learners and the record-keeping feature, the learner will be allured to interact with the learning activities again and again in order to solve the problems and win the master key. It is an optional design for the idea of mastery learning Mastery Learning is an instructional method that presumes all children can learn if they are provided with the appropriate learning conditions. Specifically, mastery learning is a method whereby students are not advanced to a subsequent learning objective until they demonstrate .

5. A visual reasoning anchor

* The maze trail map of the The Heart of Earth represents the structural relationships among the 16 modules. Icons and buttons that correspond with the setting of environment in each module stand for the interaction interfaces. The situated objects (for instance, stones, rods, stages, spaceships, etc.) illustrate invisible functions of control objects on the screen (Figure 3).

6. The invisible behaviors manifestation

* The acquired knowledge of natural science results from the observation and analysis of natural phenomenon, such as the concept of time and space. We, however, can hardly observe the moving relationship among the moon, the earth, and the sun by our own eyes. Therefore, students can hardly realize the concepts including the change of day and night, wax and wane, periodic motion, the change of season, angular elevation of the sun, and so forth. The combination of static graphics, animation, text, and narration was used to provide dynamic information about the movements and directions of the earth, moon, and sun, which are more difficult with static visual illustration or verbal explanations. The interactive WWW elements convey the dynamic nature of natural phenomena and make it concrete and directly observable. Hence, the The Heart of Earth can use the power of interactive WWW to represent knowledge of time and space domain which are difficult to demonstrate or perceive in classroom, on the earth, or with othe r formats of learning materials.

7. A message/feedback provider

* The interactive WWW interfaces in the The Heart of Earth present instructional messages to elaborate information and help make the relationships of information more explicit. Errors and error revisions are critical processes of discovery-based learning. The feedback is given at the optimal moment, when learners can either use informative feedback to revise their actions/errors or take positive feedback as reinforcer reinforcer /re·in·forc·er/ (-in-for´ser) any stimulus that produces reinforcement, a positive r. being a desirable event strengthening responses preceding its occurrence and a negative r. or motivator/encouragement to continue in the direction they've chosen.

A FINAL NOTE

Learning science, like learning any subject, is an active process and should call into play our fully imaginative and creative capabilities so that science becomes a delight to learners of all ages. It is only when we make explicit use of new natures of multimedia/ hypermedia hypermedia: see hypertext.

The use of hyperlinks, regular text, graphics, audio and video to provide an interactive, multimedia presentation. All the various elements are linked, enabling the user to move from one to another. that the new instructional media would add multiple value to human learning of any subject. Many challenges to effective design remain in quality interactive learning environments. The Heart of Earth was a joyful trail standing on the shoulder of the giant in the area of instructional technology There are two types of instructional technology: those with a systems approach, and those focusing on sensory technologies.

The definition of instructional technology prepared by the Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT) Definitions and Terminology .

Note

The web-based courseware, The Heart of Earth, was designed and developed by a development team in Taiwan. The researcher is grateful to thank the design and development crews for their contribution on the courseware. The research project described in this article was performed pursuant to grant from the Ministry of Education, Taiwan. The opinions expressed herein do not necessarily reflect the position or policy of the MOE Moe

continually exasperated at Larry and Curly for their mischievous pranks. [TV: “The Three Stooges” in Terrace, II, 366]

See : Exasperation , and no official endorsement by MOE should be inferred.

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